21. Patient 1 Selftest Patient 1 tabes dorsalis 1. Syphilis is caused by A. Treponema pallidumB. Borrelia burgdorferi C. Trypanosoma cruzi D. Plasmodium falciparum. http://www.bcm.tmc.edu/neurol/challeng/pat1/selftest.html

Tabes Dorsalis 1. Syphilis is caused by A. Treponema pallidum B. Borrelia burgdorferi C. Trypanosoma cruzi D. Plasmodium falciparum 2. In tabes dorsalis, the Argyll-Robertson pupil is seen in A. B. C. D. all proven cases of neurosyphilis 3. All of the following signs/symptoms are associated with tabes dorsalis except A. abdominal and rectal pain B. increased reflexes C. Charcot joints D. loss of vibratory and position sense 4. In tabes dorsalis, all of the following are true except A. the serum MHA-TP is positive B. the CSF VDRL is always positive C. D. CSF pleocytosis may be present in early stages, but return to normal in later stages. 5.The following statement is true A. tabes dorsalis is also known as Duchenne's disease B. CSF cell count returns to normal immediately after treatment C. Amphotericin B is helpful for refractory neurosyphilis D. all of the above are false Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine Comments to: neurons URL:http://www.bcm.tmc.edu/neurol/index.html

22. Slide: Spinal Cord, Tabes Dorsalis, Whole Mount, Myelin Stain Spinal cord, tabes dorsalis, whole mount, myelin stain Click pictureto enlarge. Close window to return Note loss of myelinated http://www.kumc.edu/instruction/medicine/pathology/ed/ch_28/c28_s32.html

Spinal cord, tabes dorsalis, whole mount, myelin stain Click picture to enlarge. Close window to return Note loss of myelinated fibers from posterior columns (normal myelin will stain blue or black).

23. Tabes Dorsalis - General Practice Notebook medical information from General Practice Notebook. tabes dorsalis. Tabes is a neurosyphiliticsyndrome that is the result of demyelination of the dorsal roots. http://www.gpnotebook.co.uk/cache/-1294991357.htm

tabes dorsalis Tabes is a neurosyphilitic syndrome that is the result of demyelination of the dorsal roots. This condition is seen more frequently in males than in females (M:F = 4:1). The first symptoms of tabes dorsalis generally occur 8-12 years after syphilitic infection. In this condition there is degeneration of the intraspinal portion of the posterior nerve roots. Degeneration also affects the sensory fibres of the cranial nerves, particularly the fifth and ninth. Investigations reveal: CSF - slight lymphocytosis, raised gamma globulin motor nerve conduction velocity - normal Click here for more information...

24. TABES DORSALÝS: tabes dorsalisSfilizin ilerlemis döneminde sinir sistemi tutulumuna bagliolarak dengesizlik, yürüme güçlügü görme bozukluklari ile seyreden http://www.hastarehberi.com/tipsozlugu/tabes.htm

TABES DORSALÝS: Sfilizin ilerlemiþ döneminde sinir sistemi tutulumuna baðlý olarak dengesizlik, yürüme güçlüðü görme bozukluklarý ile seyreden tabloya verilen isimdir. TALAMUS: Orta beyindeki bir cekirdek grubuna verilen addýr. TALASEMÝ: Kalýtsal bir kan hastalýðýdýr.akdeniz kýyýlarýnda yaþayanlarda daha sýk görülür. TAKÝPNE: Çok hýzlý solunum. TARTAR: Diþ taþý. TELENJEKTAZÝ: Deride veya mukozalarda kýrmýzý lekeler þeklinde görülen kýlcal, arteriol ve venüllerin geniþlemesinden oluþan lezyonlar. TELEKARDÝOFON: Kalp seslerini hastadan uzakta dinleten alet. TELEPATÝ: Beþ duyu iþe karýþmaksýzýn düþüncelerin, bu duyularýn üstünde bir yolla aktarýlmasý. TEMPORAL BÖLGE: Þakak bölgesi. TENDÝNÝT: Tendon iltihabý. TENDON: Kaslarýn kemiklere yapýþmasýný saðlayan yapýlar. TENESMUS: Rektum veya mesanenin iltihaplý durumlarýnda görülen, aðrýlý iþeme veya defekasyon duygusu. TENYA: Barsak paraziti, þerit, yassý solucan. TESTOSTERON: Erkek seks hormonuna verilen addýr. TREMOR: Ýrade dýþý titremelere verilen addýr. Örneðin, Hipertiroidi (Tiroid bezinin fazla çalýþmasý) adý verilen rahatsýzlýkta ellerde görülen ince amplitüdlü titremelere tremor adý verildiði gibi, Parkinson da görülen kaba ve büyük amplitüdlü titremelere de tremor denir. TROMBOZ: Kan damarlarýnýn pýhtý veya ateron (kolesterol) plaklarý oluþarak týkanmasýdýr

25. MEDLINEplus Medical Encyclopedia: Syphilitic Myelopathy Alternative names Return to top tabes dorsalis. The condition called tabes dorsalisincludes syphilitic myelopathy and additional symptoms of nerve damage. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000729.htm

Skip navigation Medical Encyclopedia Other encyclopedia topics: A-Ag Ah-Ap Aq-Az B-Bk ... Z Syphilitic myelopathy Contents of this page: Illustrations Alternative names Definition Causes, incidence, and risk factors ... Prevention Illustrations Superficial anterior muscles Alternative names Return to top Tabes dorsalis Definition Return to top Syphilitic myelopathy is a disorder characterized by muscle weakness and abnormal sensations caused by untreated syphilis infections. Causes, incidence, and risk factors Return to top Syphilitic myelopathy is a form of neurosyphilis , which is a progressive, life-threatening complication of late or tertiary syphilis infection. The condition called tabes dorsalis includes syphilitic myelopathy and additional symptoms of nerve damage. The infection damages the tissue of the spinal cord and peripheral nervous tissue. This causes decreased muscle function (myelopathy), including progressive weakness of the legs, arms, and other areas. Loss of function may eventually result in paralysis . Coordination difficulties contribute to problems walking . There are often changes in sensation, including painful

26. MEDLINEplus Medical Encyclopedia: Neurosyphilis complication. There are 4 different forms of neurosyphilis asymptomatic,meningovascular, tabes dorsalis, and general paresis. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000703.htm

Skip navigation Medical Encyclopedia Other encyclopedia topics: A-Ag Ah-Ap Aq-Az B-Bk ... Z Neurosyphilis Contents of this page: Illustrations Definition Causes, incidence, and risk factors Symptoms ... Prevention Illustrations Central nervous system Definition Return to top Neurosyphilis is a slowly progressive and destructive infection of the brain or spinal cord that occurs in untreated syphilis many years after the primary infection. Causes, incidence, and risk factors Return to top Neurosyphilis occurs in 15 to 20% of all late or tertiary syphilis infections and is a progressive, life-threatening complication. There are 4 different forms of neurosyphilis: asymptomatic , meningovascular, tabes dorsalis , and general paresis Asymptomatic neurosyphilis precedes symptomatic syphilis and is present in 15% of those with latent syphilis. In this case, abnormalities may be present in the cerebrospinal fluid, but no symptoms are present. In meningovascular neurosyphilis, cranial nerve palsies and pupillary abnormalities may be present with a wide variety of symptoms. This may also cause damage to blood vessels resulting in stroke. In tabes dorsalis, progressive degeneration of the spinal cord occurs causing an inability to walk.

27. Health Ency.: Disease: Syphilitic Myelopathy Alternative names tabes dorsalis. Definition tabes dorsalis includessyphilitic myelopathy and additional symptoms of nerve damage. http://www.austin360.com/shared/health/adam/ency/article/000729.html

SEARCH: The Web Yellow Pages HOME Illustrated Health Encyclopedia Important notice Ency. home Disease S Syphilitic myelopathy Overview Symptoms Treatment Prevention Alternative names: Tabes dorsalis Definition: A disorder characterized by muscle weakness and abnormal sensations ; it can develop in untreated syphilis infections. Causes and Risks Syphilitic myelopathy is a form of neurosyphilis , which is a progressive, life-threatening complication of late or tertiary syphilis infection. Tabes dorsalis includes syphilitic myelopathy and additional symptoms of nerve damage. The infection damages the tissue of the spinal cord and peripheral nervous tissue. This causes decreased muscle function (myelopathy), including progressive weakness of the legs, arms, and other areas. Loss of function may eventually result in paralysis . Coordination difficulties contribute to problems walking . There are often changes in sensation, including painful paresthesia abnormal sensations ), which are often referred to as "lightning pains." Tabes dorsalis is an entity that often coexists with syphilitic myelopathy. The muscle problems are accompanied by other symptoms characteristic of nervous system damage caused by syphilis . These include vision changes, strokes, and psychiatric illness.

28. TABES DORSALIS (Search FastHealth.com) TABES DORSALIS Dictionary FastHealth Email This! tabes dor·sa·lis n a syphiliticdisorder that involves the dorsal horns of the spinal cord http://www.fasthealth.com/dictionary/t/tabes_dorsalis.php

Dictionary FastHealth Email This! n locomotor ataxia FastNurse Drug Search Hospital Search ... Dead Links

29. FastHealth Medical Dictionary T-Ten Tmaze, T-tube, 2,4,5-T or 2,4,5-T, T 3 , T4 cell, Ta or TA, tab, tabanid, Tabanidae,Tabanus, tabardillo, tabella, tabes, tabes dorsalis, tabetic, tabid, table http://www.fasthealth.com/dictionary/index_t-ten.php

Dictionary FastHealth Email This! T-Ten Ten-Tho Tho-Ton ... Tro-Tz T to Tenotomy T T-4 T-cell leukemia T-group ... Z Published under license with Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. © 1997-2000. FastNurse Drug Search Hospital Search Find a Physician ... Dead Links

30. Searchalot Directory For Tabes Dorsalis MedTerms Medical Dictionary A definition of Neurosyphilis, tabes alsoknown as tabes dorsalis. Med Help - A description of tabes dorsalis. http://www.searchalot.com/Top/Health/ConditionsandDiseases/NeurologicalDisorders

Home Search News Email Greetings Weather ... Global All the Internet About AltaVista AOL Search Ask Jeeves BBC Search BBC News Business Dictionary Discovery Health Dogpile CheckDomain CNN Corbis eBay Education World Employment Encyclopedia Encarta Excite Fast Search FindLaw FirstGov Google Google Groups Infomine iWon Librarians Index Looksmart Lycos Metacrawler Microsoft Northern Light Open Directory SearchEdu SearchGov Shareware Teoma Thesaurus Thunderstone WayBackMachine Webshots WiseNut Yahoo! Yahoo! Auctions Yahoo! News Yahooligans Zeal Sponsored Links Top Health Conditions and Diseases Neurological Disorders ... Spinal Cord : Tabes Dorsalis Related Web Sites MedTerms: Medical Dictionary - A definition of Neurosyphilis, tabes: also known as tabes dorsalis. Med Help - A description of tabes dorsalis. All the Internet About AltaVista AOL Search Ask Jeeves BBC Search BBC News Business Dictionary Discovery Health Dogpile CheckDomain CNN Corbis eBay Education World Employment Encyclopedia Encarta Excite Fast Search FindLaw FirstGov Google Google Groups Infomine iWon Librarians Index Looksmart Lycos Metacrawler Microsoft Northern Light Open Directory SearchEdu SearchGov Shareware Teoma Thesaurus Thunderstone WayBackMachine Webshots WiseNut Yahoo!

31. Virtual Hospital: Infectious Diseases Of The Central Nervous System: Tabes Dorsa Infectious Diseases of the Central Nervous System. tabes dorsalis. tabes dorsalisinvolves the dorsal roots and posterior columns of the spinal cord. http://www.vh.org/adult/provider/pathology/CNSInfDisR2/Text/157.html

For Providers Infectious Diseases of the Central Nervous System Tabes Dorsalis Gary Baumbach, M.D., Department of Pathology, University of Iowa College of Medicine Peer Review Status: Internally Peer Reviewed Tabes dorsalis involves the dorsal roots and posterior columns of the spinal cord. Staining the cord specifically for myelin demonstrates the localization of demyelination to the posterior columns as shown on this slide. Section Top Title Page See related Provider Textbooks about Neurology or Pathology See related Provider Topics Abscesses Bacterial Infections Brain and Nervous System Brain Diseases ... Pathology or Viral Infections See related Patient Textbooks about Neurology or Pathology See related Patient Topics Bacterial Infections Brain and Nervous System Brain Diseases Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease ... Pathology or Viral Infections Virtual Hospital Home Virtual Children's Hospital Home Site Map ... UI Health Care Home http://www.vh.org/adult/provider/pathology/CNSInfDisR2/Text/157.html

32. Virtual Hospital: Infectious Diseases Of The Central Nervous System: Tabes Dorsa tabes dorsalis. Gary Baumbach, MD, Department of Pathology, University ofIowa College of Medicine Peer Review Status Internally Peer Reviewed. http://www.vh.org/adult/provider/pathology/CNSInfDisR2/Text/158.html

For Providers Infectious Diseases of the Central Nervous System Tabes Dorsalis Gary Baumbach, M.D., Department of Pathology, University of Iowa College of Medicine Peer Review Status: Internally Peer Reviewed With the same myelin stain, it also is possible to appreciate the demyelination which occurs in the dorsal spinal roots. The junction of the dorsal root and spinal cord is shown in the center of this slide. Note the pallor in this region. Section Top Title Page See related Provider Textbooks about Neurology or Pathology See related Provider Topics Abscesses Bacterial Infections Brain and Nervous System Brain Diseases ... Pathology or Viral Infections See related Patient Textbooks about Neurology or Pathology See related Patient Topics Bacterial Infections Brain and Nervous System Brain Diseases Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease ... Pathology or Viral Infections Virtual Hospital Home Virtual Children's Hospital Home Site Map ... UI Health Care Home http://www.vh.org/adult/provider/pathology/CNSInfDisR2/Text/158.html

33. Tabes Dorsalis tabes dorsalis. Top Health Conditions_and_Diseases Neurological_Disorders Spinal_Cord Tabes_Dorsalis 1, Med Help. A description of tabes dorsalis. http://www.ad.com/Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/T/__Tabes_Dorsalis/

search Top Med Help A description of tabes dorsalis. Category: Health > Conditions and Diseases > Neurological Disorders > Spinal Cord > Tabes Dorsalis http://medhlp.netusa.net/glossary/new/gls_4064.htm MedTerms: Medical Dictionary A definition of Neurosyphilis, tabes: also known as tabes dorsalis. Category: Health > Conditions and Diseases > Neurological Disorders > Spinal Cord > Tabes Dorsalis http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=4558 AD.COM Web Directory is based on ODP - Open Directory Project data. No proprietary software was used in the development of this web site. Help build the largest human-edited directory on the web. Submit a Site Open Directory Project Become an Editor

34. 1Up Health > Syphilitic Myelopathy > Causes, Incidence, And Risk Factors Of Syph Comprehesive information on Syphilitic myelopathy (tabes dorsalis).Covers Alternative names tabes dorsalis. Definition Syphilitic http://www.1uphealth.com/health/syphilitic_myelopathy_info.html

1Up Health Syphilitic myelopathy Alternative Medicine Clinical Trials ... Health Topics A-Z Search 1Up Health Syphilitic myelopathy Information Syphilitic myelopathy Causes, Incidence, and Risk Factors Alternative names : Tabes dorsalis Definition : Syphilitic myelopathy is a disorder characterized by muscle weakness and abnormal sensations caused by untreated syphilis infections. Causes, Incidence, and Risk Factors Syphilitic myelopathy is a form of neurosyphilis , which is a progressive, life-threatening complication of late or tertiary syphilis infection. The condition called tabes dorsalis includes syphilitic myelopathy and additional symptoms of nerve damage. The infection damages the tissue of the spinal cord and peripheral nervous tissue. This causes decreased muscle function (myelopathy), including progressive weakness of the legs, arms, and other areas. Loss of function may eventually result in paralysis . Coordination difficulties contribute to problems walking . There are often changes in sensation, including painful paresthesia abnormal sensations ), which are often referred to as "lightning pains."

35. 1Up Health > Health Links Directory > Conditions And Diseases: Neurological Diso Conditions and Diseases Neurological Disorders Spinal Cord tabes dorsalis. Uncover Sites. Med Help A description of tabes dorsalis. MedTerms http://www.1uphealth.com/links/spinal-cord-tabes-dorsalis.html

Home Contact Us Privacy Caring For Your Well Being Alternative Medicine Clinical Trials Health News Poisons ... Health Topics A-Z Search 1Up Health Health Directory Addictions Alternative Animal ... Weight Loss By Demography Child Health Teen Health Men's Health Women's Health ... Spinal Cord : Tabes Dorsalis Description Sites Med Help A description of tabes dorsalis. MedTerms: Medical Dictionary A definition of Neurosyphilis, tabes: also known as tabes dorsalis. Help build the largest human-edited directory on the web. Submit a Site Open Directory Project Become an Editor Parts of the directory made available on 1UpHealth have been modified. External Web site links provided on this site are meant for convenience and for informational purposes only; they do not constitute an endorsement. Search: The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed physician should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. Links to other sites are provided for information only they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. Home Contact Us Privacy Links Directory

36. Syphilitic Myelopathy tabes dorsalis. Causes, incidence, and risk factors The condition called tabes dorsalisincludes syphilitic myelopathy and additional symptoms of nerve damage. http://www.pennhealth.com/ency/article/000729.htm

Disease Injury Nutrition Poison ... Prevention Syphilitic myelopathy Definition: Syphilitic myelopathy is a disorder characterized by muscle weakness and abnormal sensations caused by untreated syphilis infections. Alternative Names: Tabes dorsalis Causes, incidence, and risk factors: Syphilitic myelopathy is a form of neurosyphilis , which is a progressive, life-threatening complication of late or tertiary syphilis infection. The condition called tabes dorsalis includes syphilitic myelopathy and additional symptoms of nerve damage. The infection damages the tissue of the spinal cord and peripheral nervous tissue. This causes decreased muscle function (myelopathy), including progressive weakness of the legs, arms, and other areas. Loss of function may eventually result in paralysis . Coordination difficulties contribute to problems walking . There are often changes in sensation, including painful paresthesia abnormal sensations ), which are often referred to as "lightning pains." In syphilitic myelopathy, the muscle problems are accompanied by other symptoms characteristic of nervous system damage caused by syphilis . These include vision changes, stroke, and psychiatric illness.

37. Charcot, Jean Martin. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001 He made many important observations on these diseases, described the characteristicsof tabes dorsalis, differentiated multiple sclerosis and paralysis agitans http://www.bartleby.com/65/ch/CharcotJM.html

Select Search All Bartleby.com All Reference Columbia Encyclopedia World History Encyclopedia World Factbook Columbia Gazetteer American Heritage Coll. Dictionary Roget's Thesauri Roget's II: Thesaurus Roget's Int'l Thesaurus Quotations Bartlett's Quotations Columbia Quotations Simpson's Quotations English Usage Modern Usage American English Fowler's King's English Strunk's Style Mencken's Language Cambridge History The King James Bible Oxford Shakespeare Gray's Anatomy Farmer's Cookbook Post's Etiquette Bulfinch's Mythology Frazer's Golden Bough All Verse Anthologies Dickinson, E. Eliot, T.S. Frost, R. Hopkins, G.M. Keats, J. Lawrence, D.H. Masters, E.L. Sandburg, C. Sassoon, S. Whitman, W. Wordsworth, W. Yeats, W.B. All Nonfiction Harvard Classics American Essays Einstein's Relativity Grant, U.S. Roosevelt, T. Wells's History Presidential Inaugurals All Fiction Shelf of Fiction Ghost Stories Short Stories Shaw, G.B. Stein, G. Stevenson, R.L. Wells, H.G. Reference Columbia Encyclopedia PREVIOUS NEXT ... BIBLIOGRAPHIC RECORD The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Charcot, Jean Martin

38. TABES DORALIS AND ALUMINIUM METALLICUM I, part III. p. 91 of the second edition, where he treats of tabes dorsalis “Nopatient of this kind can ever any hope of getting well; they are all doomed. http://www.minutus.org/tabesdorsalis.htm

HOME ABOUT LIBRARY BOOKS ... LINKS Minutus Library Lesser Writings of Boenninghausen TABES DORALIS AND ALUMINIUM METALLICUM. Allg. hom. Zeit., Vol. 57, page 3. “No patient of this kind,” the learned Privy Medical Councilor Dr. Romberg avers in his Manual on Nervous Diseases Vol. I, part III. p. 91 of the second edition, where he treats of tabes dorsalis: “No patient of this kind can ever any hope of getting well; they are all doomed. The only consolation, at least for shoe who desire to live, is the long duration of the disease. If the restless activity of the physician in anyone case aggravates the sufferings of the patient, this is the case in tabes dorsalis. Only seldom do we see an unfortunate of this kind, whose back is not full of cicatrices, who is without a large roll of prescriptions, and who has not made a round of all the Springs, having everywhere sought a cure in vain. Humanity therefore at once compels us to declare, that therapeutic treatment can only injure, not benefit; and that merely a regulation of the diet in all its bearings is able to protect the patient from too early great sufferings.” Farther testimony with respect to this incurability without any exception of this not very rare disease, which at the same time is unmistakably and sharply diagnosed, is unnecessary; though it might be quoted from almost every pathology of more ancient as well as of more modern time. The more, therefore, may the younger, genuinely German sister of the two thousand years’ old foreign allopathy felicitate herself, if she in agreement with the law of nature discovered by her founder: Similia similibus! Has found a remedy which has already proved its efficacy in the most decided manner in several cases.

39. Neurosyphilis tabes dorsalis sensory loss, ataxia, bladder dysfunction. Onset of symptomsusually 15 years after initial infection. tabes dorsalis Baylor. http://neuroland.com/id/neurosyph.htm

Neuroland Neurology information Click on the brain to index page Search NeuroLand Neuro disease Notes ... Neuro Med Neurosyphilis Organism Treponema pallidum Early CNS involvement The organism invades CNS early on, 10-70% of patient with early syphilis have CSF pleocytosis, elevated CSF protein or positive CSF VDRL Early forms Asymptomatic Neurosyphilis: CSF abnormalities, neuro normal Symptomatic meningitis: clinical meningitis, may develop cranial nerve abnormalities, hydrocephalus. Most common in first year of infection. Meningovasculitis: present with strokes, peak at 7 years after primary infection. Late forms General paresis: forgetful, personality change, psychiatric symptoms. Onset usually 10-20 years after primary infection. Treatment may not improve symptoms. Tabes dorsalis: sensory loss, ataxia, bladder dysfunction. Onset of symptoms usually 15 years after initial infection. Tabes Dorsalis - Baylor Diagnosis of Neurosyphilis Serum MHA-TP or FTA-ABS positive. RPR, VDRL may be negative in late stage CSF pleocytosis with a mild elevation of CSF protein CSF VDRL: low sensitivity (22-69%), but if positive is highly specific for Neurosyphilis

40. *TITLE* tabes dorsalis The slowly progressive degeneration of the spinal cord that occursin the late (tertiary) phase of syphilis a decade or more after contracting http://www.kemc.edu/t.html

MEDICAL DICTIONARY Click on the alphabet and there you go! A B C D ... Z T: T-cell: A white blood cell made in the thymus gland, a lymphoid structure in the upper chest. (The T in T-cell stands for Thymus). The T-cells coordinate the immune system by secreting lymphokine hormones. There are 3 fundamentally different types of T cells : helper, killer, and suppressor. Each has many subdivisions. T-cells are also called T lymphocytes. Triiodothyronine, a thyroid hormone. (The number 3 is usually in subscript.) Thyroid hormones are essential for the function of every cell in the body. They help regulate growth and the rate of chemical reactions (metabolism) in the body. Thyroxine, a thyroid hormone. (The number 4 is usually in subscript.) Thyroid hormones are essential for the function of every cell in the body. They help regulate growth and the rate of chemical reactions (metabolism) in the body. T4 cell: Immune cells that are triggered by antibodies to seek and attack invading organisms. Cells called macrophanges summon T4 cells to the site of the infection and present a protruding antigen onto which the T4 cell locks, thus "recognizing" the invading substance. The T4 cell then reproduces and secretes its potent lymphokine hormones that stimulate B-cell production of antibodies; signal "natural killer" or cytotoxic (cell-killing) T-cells; and summon more macrophanges to the site of the infection. T4 cells are normally twice as common as T8 cells. If a person has AIDS, the proportion of T4 to T8 cells is often reversed. T4 cell are also called T-helper cells.

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